From handwriting to keyboarding: Insights from national studies on teacher practices, adaptations, and digital instruction in Australian primary schools

Writing proficiency is foundational to students’ learning, communication, and future participation in an increasingly digital world. Yet, national data reveal persistent declines in Australian students’ writing performance and widening achievement gaps, underscoring the need to better understand classroom writing instruction and support for struggling writers. This paper integrates findings from three national surveys of Australian primary teachers (Grades 1-6) examining (a) general writing instruction, (b) instructional adaptations for struggling writers, and (c) computer-based writing instruction. Together, these studies illuminate systemic patterns in teacher practices, preparation, and self-efficacy across traditional and digital writing contexts. Across all studies, teachers reported allocating substantially more time to foundational writing skills—particularly spelling and grammar— than to process skills such as planning and revising, despite strong evidence supporting the instructional value of both. Adaptations for struggling writers similarly prioritised surface level skills, with limited use of digital supports, even though teachers overwhelmingly believed keyboarding and word processing skills are essential. Computer-based writing instruction remained infrequent, with students spending less than one hour per week on digital writing and receiving minimal explicit instruction in keyboarding or revising digital texts. Hierarchical regression analyses across datasets consistently identified teacher self efficacy—rather than preparation, experience, or grade levels—as the strongest predictor of effective writing practices, including adaptations for struggling writers, integration of digital tools, and school-home writing partnerships. Teachers also reported limited preservice training for both writing and digital writing instruction, highlighting a system-level gap in teacher education. This integrative analysis offers a compelling account of the multi-layered challenges shaping writing instruction in Australia. Findings underscore the need for sustained professional learning that builds teacher self-efficacy, strengthens evidence-based writing pedagogy, and supports the integration of digital writing practices essential for contemporary literacy development.